A
Galvanic cell, or
Voltaic cell, named after
Luigi Galvani, or
Alessandro Volta respectively, is an
electrochemical cell that derives electrical energy from
chemical reactions taking place within the cell. It generally consists of two different metals connected by a
salt bridge, or individual half-cells separated by a porous membrane.
Volta was the inventor of the
voltaic pile, the first
electrical battery. In common usage, the word "battery" has come to include a single Galvanic cell, but a battery properly consists of multiple cells.
History
In 1780, Luigi Galvani discovered that when two different
metals (copper and zinc for example) were connected together and then both touched to different parts of a nerve of a frog leg at the same time, they made the leg contract.
[3] He called this "
animal electricity". The
volatic pile invented by
Alessandro Volta in the 1800s is similar to the galvanic cell. These discoveries paved the way for
electrical batteries.
Description
Schematic of Zn-Cu galvanic cell
A Galvanic cell consists of two
half-cells. In its simplest form, each half-cell consists of a metal and a solution of a salt of the metal. The salt solution contains a
cation of the metal and an
anion to balance the charge on the cation. In essence the half-cell contains the metal in two
oxidation states and the chemical reaction in the half-cell is an
oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction, written symbolically in reduction direction as
- Mn+ (oxidized species) + n e−
M (reduced species)
In a galvanic cell one metal is able to reduce the cation of the other and, conversely, the other cation can oxidize the first metal. The two half-cells must be physically separated so that the solutions do not mix together. A
salt bridge or porous plate is used to separate the two solutions yet keep the respective charges of the solutions from separating, which would stop the chemical reactions.
The number of electrons transferred in both directions must be the same, so the two half-cells are combined to give the whole-cell electrochemical reaction. For two metals A and B:
- An+ + n e− A
- Bm+ + m e− B
- m A + n Bm+ n B + m An+
This is not the whole story as anions must also be transferred from one half-cell to the other. When a metal in one half-cell is oxidized, anions must be transferred into that half-cell to balance the electrical charge of the cation produced. The anions are released from the other half-cell where a cation is reduced to the metallic state. Thus, the salt bridge or porous membrane serves both to keep the solutions apart and to allow the flow of anions in the direction opposite to the flow of electrons in the wire connecting the electrodes.
The voltage of the Galvanic cell is the sum of the voltages of the two half-cells. It is measured by connecting a
voltmeter to the two electrodes. The voltmeter has very high
resistance, so the current flow is effectively negligible. When a device such as an electric motor is attached to the electrodes, a current flows and redox reactions occur in both half-cells. This will continue until the concentration of the cations that are being reduced goes to zero.
For the
Daniell cell, depicted in the figure, the two metals are
zinc and
copper and the two salts are
sulfates of the respective metal. Zinc is the oxidized metal so when a device is connected to the electrodes, the electrochemical reaction is
- Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
The zinc electrode is dissolved and copper is deposited on the copper electrode (as copper ions become reduced to copper metal). By definition, the
cathode is the electrode where reduction (gain of electrons) takes place, so the copper electrode is the cathode. The
cathode attracts
cations, so has a negative charge when current is discharging. In this case, copper is the cathode and zinc the anode.
Galvanic cells are typically used as a source of electrical power. By their nature they produce
direct current. For example, a
lead-acid battery contains a number of galvanic cells. The two electrodes are effectively lead and lead oxide.
The
Weston cell was adopted as an International Standard for voltage in 1911. The anode is a
cadmium mercury amalgam, the cathode is made of pure mercury, the electrolyte is a (saturated) solution of
cadmium sulfate and the depolarizer is a paste of mercurous sulfate. When the electrolyte solution is saturated the voltage of the cell is very reproducible, hence its use as a standard.
Cell voltage
The standard electrical potential of a cell can be determined by use of a
standard potential table for the two
half cells involved. The first step is to identify the two metals reacting in the cell. Then one looks up the
standard electrode potential,
E0, in
volts, for each of the two
half reactions. The standard potential for the cell is equal to the more positive
E0 value minus the more negative
E0 value.
For example, in the figure above the solutions are CuSO
4 and ZnSO
4. Each solution has a corresponding metal strip in it, and a
salt bridge or porous disk connecting the two solutions and allowing SO
42− ions to flow freely between the copper and zinc solutions. In order to calculate the standard potential one looks up copper and zinc's half reactions and finds:
- Cu2+ + 2 e− Cu: E0 = +0.34 V
- Zn2+ + 2 e− Zn: E0 = −0.76 V
Thus the overall reaction is:
- Cu2+ + Zn Cu + Zn2+
The standard potential for the reaction is then +0.34 V − (−0.76 V) = 1.10 V. The polarity of the cell is determined as follows. Zinc metal is more strongly reducing than copper metal as shown by the fact that the standard (reduction) potential for zinc is more negative than that of copper. Thus, zinc metal will lose electrons to copper ions and develop a positive electrical charge. The
equilibrium constant,
K, for the cell is given by
where
F is the
Faraday constant,
R is the
gas constant and
T is the temperature in
kelvins. For the Daniell cell
K is approximately equal to 1.5×10
37. Thus, at equilibrium, a few electrons are transferred, enough to cause the electrodes to be charged.
[4]
Actual half-cell potentials must be calculated by using the
Nernst equation as the solutes are unlikely to be in their standard states,
where
Q is the
reaction quotient. This simplifies to
where {
Mn+} is the
activity of the metal ion in solution. The metal electrode is in its standard state so by definition has unit activity. In practice concentration is used in place of activity. The potential of the whole cell is obtained by combining the potentials for the two half-cells, so it depends on the concentrations of both dissolved metal ions.
The value of 2.303
R/
F is 0.19845×10
-3 V/K, so at 25 °C (298.15 K) the half-cell potential will change by
0.05918V / n if the concentration of a metal ion is increased or decreased by a factor of 10.
![E_{\text{half-cell}}= E^0 + \frac{0.05918 V}{n} \log_{10} [ M^{n+}]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/8/9/f/89f341a5c374d8ca90ac9e610b124047.png)
These calculations are based on the assumption that all chemical reactions are in
equilibrium. When a current flows in the circuit, equilibrium conditions are not achieved and the cell potential will usually be reduced by various mechanisms, such as the development of
overpotentials.
[5] Also, since chemical reactions occur when the cell is producing power, the electrolyte concentrations change and the cell voltage is reduced. A consequence of the temperature dependency of standard potentials is that the voltage produced by a galvanic cell is also temperature dependent.
Cell types
See also
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วันวาเลนไทน์ นั้นมีมาตั้งแต่สมัยจักรวรรดิโรมัน ในกรุงโรมสมัยก่อนนั้น วันที่ 14 กุมภาพันธ์ จะเป็นวันเฉลิมฉลองของจูโน่ ซึ่งเป็นราชินีแห่งเหล่าเทพและเทพธิดาของโรมัน ชาวโรมันรู้จักเธอในนามของเทพธิดาแห่ง อิสตรีและการแต่งงาน และในวันถัดมาคือวันที่ 15 กุมภาพันธ์ ก็จะเป็นวันเริ่มต้นงานเลี้ยงของ Lupercalia การดำเนินชีวิตของเด็กหนุ่มและเด็กสาวในสมัยนั้นจะถูกแยกจากกันอย่างเด็ดขาด แต่อย่างไรก็ตาม ยังมีประเพณี อย่างนึง ซึ่งเด็กหนุ่มสาวยัง สืบทอดต่อกันมา คือ คืนก่อนวันเฉลิมฉลอง Lupercalia นั้นชื่อของเด็กสาวทุกคนจะถูกเขียนลงในเศษกระดาษเล็ก ๆ และจะใส่เอาไว้ในเหยือก เด็กหนุ่มแต่ละคนจะดึงชื่อของเด็กสาวออกจากเหยือก แล้วหลังจากนั้นก็จะจับคู่กันในงานเฉลิมฉลอง บางครั้งการจับคู่นี้ ท้ายที่สุดก็จะจบลงด้วยการ ที่เด็กหนุ่มและเด็กสาวทั้งสองนั้นได้ตกหลุมรักกันและแต่งงานกันในที่สุด
